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Assessment of Tuberculosis and Hepatitis B Virus Co-Infection Rates and Their Relationship with HIV Viral Load Among HIV Patients in Port Harcourt, Nigeria

¹Diamreyan Onoriode Okpako, ²Okonko Blessing Jachinma, ¹Cookey Tochi Ifeoma, ¹Kalio Awopolagha Justice, ¹Frank-Peterside Nnenna & ¹Okonko Iheanyi Omezuruike

¹Virus & Genomics Research Unit, Department of Microbiology, University of Port Harcourt, Port Harcourt, Nigeria.

²Medical Microbiology & Epidemiology Research Unit, Department of Microbiology, Madonna University, Nigeria,   Elele, Rivers State, Nigeria.

: iheanyi.okonko@uniport.edu.ng; + (234) 7069697309

Abstract: Mycobacterium tuberculosis causes tuberculosis (TB), primarily affecting the lungs and remaining a significant threat globally. HIV infection accelerates TB progression. Coinfection of TB with hepatitis B virus (HBV) can worsen treatment outcomes, potentially leading to failure. Though TB is treatable, complications from hepatitis can occur, causing liver damage in some cases. This study aims to determine the prevalence and co-infection rate of tuberculosis and hepatitis B as well as its correlation with viral load among HIV patients receiving antiretroviral therapy. Two hundred (200) HIV-infected individuals receiving antiretroviral therapy (ART) at the Rivers State University Teaching Hospital (RSUTH), were enrolled and underwent screening for HBV surface antigens and tuberculosis using rapid diagnostic tests (RDTs). The HIV viral load was determined through Reverse Transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). Questionnaires were administered to gather demographic information and assess risk factors related to HBV and tuberculosis among the participants. The results indicated an overall prevalence of 3.0% for HBV, and 2.5% for TB and no co-infection was observed between tuberculosis and Hepatitis B. A high prevalence of 1.0% for HBV and 4.1% for TB was recorded among individuals aged 49-56 and 41-48, respectively. Among HBV cases, high prevalence rates were observed among males at 3.0%, singles at 4.2%, illiterates at 7.7%, and those with a viral load below 20 copies/ml at 3.6%. Conversely, for TB, higher prevalence rates were found among females 2.9%, married individuals (4.4%), those with primary education 8.7%, and 9.1% for participants with viral load exceeding 1000 copies/ml. However, there was no statistical association between the demographic variables and HBV and TB infection (p > 0.05). Conclusively, an overall prevalence of 2.5% and 3.0% was observed in tuberculosis and hepatitis B, respectively, in the studied population. There was no co-infection between tuberculosis and hepatitis B. Statistical analysis did not find significant associations between variables and infection rates. There is a need to carry out routine screening for the hepatitis B virus and TB among HIV-infected individuals for proper disease management and increased treatment success

[Diamreyan, O. O., Okonko, B. J., Cookey, T. I., Kalio, A. J., Frank-Peterside, N. & Okonko, I. O. Assessment of Tuberculosis and Hepatitis B Virus Co-Infection Rates and their Relationship with HIV Viral Load Among HIV Patients in Port Harcourt, Nigeria. Nat Sci 2026,24(9):1-9]. ISSN 1545-0740 (print); ISSN 2375-7167 (online). http://www.sciencepub.net/nature 01. doi:10.7537/marsnsj240926.01

Keywords: Hepatitis B; TB; HIV; ART; Viral Load

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HIV/Malaria and HIV/syphilis Co-infections among HIV-Infected Persons attending a Tertiary Hospital in Umuahia, Abia State, Nigeria

¹Enya, E., ²Ewa-Udu, N., ²Okonko, B. J., ³Onyedibia, G. C., ⁴Okerentugba, P. & ⁴Okonko, I.O.

¹Department of Microbiology, Michael Okpara University of Agriculture, Umudike, Abia State,

Nigeria.

²Medical Microbiology & Epidemiology Research Unit, Department of Microbiology, Madonna University Nigeria, Elele, Rivers State, Nigeria.

³Department of Microbiology, Federal College of Education (Technical), Omoku, River State Nigeria.

⁴Virus & Genomics Research Unit, Department of Microbiology, University of Port Harcourt, Port Harcourt, Nigeria.

: iheanyi.okonko@uniport.edu.ng; + (234) 7069697309

Abstract: The trio of HIV, Malaria, and Syphilis represents three major infectious diseases with significant global health burdens especially in sub-Saharan Africa. This study analyzed co-infection rates of syphilis and malaria in a cohort of 200 HIV/AIDS patients. The overall syphilis co-infection rate was 7.0% (14/200), and the malaria co-infection rate was 4.5% (9/200). HIV/Syphilis co-infection was highest rate in 41-50 age group (10.0%, 7/70), lowest in ≤30 (0%) with no significant association (χ²=1.04, p=0.52). Males had higher co-infection (9.8%, 6/61) vs. females (5.8%, 8/139), but not significant (p=0.22). Higher rates of HIV/syphilis co-infection were found in middle-aged groups (41-50 years: 10.0%) and singles (10.1%). No significant association (χ²=2.61, p=0.16) was found between viral load and HIV/syphilis co-infection. It was found from this study that 18.5% and 9.1% of the HIV/Syphilis co-infected persons had viral loads of 40-1000copies/ml and >1000copies/ml respectively. Males had higher (6.6%, 4/61) malaria/HIV co-infection than the female respondents (3.6%, 5/139) (p=0.39). Occupational status showed that the co-infection was most common amongst those who were employed and students each with a 5.6% prevalence. Singles had higher co-infection rate (7.6%) than the married category (5.5%). However, no statistically significant association was found between co-infection status and marital status (p=0.08). The prevalence of Plasmodium falciparum infection among HIV patients in relation to age groups revealed that the highest prevalence of 7.1% was observed among patients within the age group of <30years. Co-infection with HIV/malaria also showed no significant difference with regards to the HIV viral load (χ²=4.61, p=0.33) as 36.4% of malaria co-infected HIV subjects had higher levels of HIV viral load (>1000copies/ml). Owing to the fact that increased viral load enhances transmission of the disease, this study suggests that individuals living with HIV/AIDS should prioritize monitoring their viral load as it was found that co-infection with either syphilis or malaria resulted in increase in viral load.

[Enya, E., Ewa-Udu, N., Okonko, B.J., Onyedibia, G. C., Okerentugba, P. & Okonko, I. O. HIV/Malaria and HIV/syphilis Co-infections among HIV-Infected Persons attending a Tertiary Hospital in Umuahia, Abia State, Nigeria. Nat Sci 2026,24(9):10-20]. ISSN 1545-0740 (print); ISSN 2375-7167 (online). http://www.sciencepub.net/nature 02. doi:10.7537/marsnsj240926.02

Keyword: Malaria; Syphilis; Infection

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IMMUNOLOGICAL AND VIROLOGICAL MARKERS OF HIV-INFECTED INDIVIDUALS ATTENDING A TEACHING HOSPITAL IN BAYELSA STATE, NIGERIA

¹Udo Koko Okon, ²Okonko Blessing Jachinma, ³Affia Anekan George, ¹Okerentugba Phillip O & *¹Okonko Iheanyi Omezuruike

¹Virus & Genomics Research Unit, Department of Microbiology, University of Port Harcourt, Port Harcourt, Nigeria.

²Medical Microbiology & Epidemiology Research Unit, Department of Microbiology, Madonna University Nigeria, Elele, Rivers State, Nigeria.

³Medical Microbiology Research Unit, Department of Medical Laboratory Science, University of Port Harcourt, Port Harcourt, Nigeria.

*Corresponding author’s e-mail address: iheanyi.okonko@uniport.edu.ng; Tel: +2347069697309, ORCID iD: 0000-0002-3053-253X

ABSTRACT: Background: Due mostly to the challenge of identifying patients in the early stages of acute HIV infection when HIV serology is still non-reactive, there is a dearth of information regarding the immunological and virological events that take place during this time. Understanding HIV aetiology requires recording immunological and virological markers. This study aimed to analyse the immunological and virological profiles of HIV-infected individuals attending a tertiary hospital in Bayelsa State, Nigeria. Method: A cross-sectional approach was employed, and the study population was drawn from HIV-infected patients undergoing clinical monitoring at the antiretroviral therapy (ART) clinic of the Niger Delta University of Teaching Hospital (NDUTH), Bayelsa State, Nigeria. A whole blood sample was collected from 200 consented subjects: 133 females (66.5%) and 67 males (33.5%). The viral load for the total sample was determined using the Abbott Real-Time HIV-1 Assay US protocol. Results: of the total 200 samples tested, 67 were recorded as undetected, 54 as low levels of virus, 47 as moderate levels of virus, and 32 as high levels of virus. The CD4 counts were carried out using the Partec CyFlow® Counter, with the following results: 49.0% of the sample had above 500 copies of CD4, and 51 of the sample had below 500 copies of CD4. Conclusion: Overall, the information and findings of this study provide fresh insight and knowledge on the CD4 and plasma viral load, and the need for early, individualisation of patient treatment and care and strict adherence to ART dose regimens. Clinicians can leverage these findings to provide more individualistic care to HIV patients for better health outcomes and reduce the rate of transmission in the general population.

[Koko, U. K., Okonko, B. J., Affia, A. G., Okerentugba, P. O., & Okonko, I. O. Immunological and Virological Markers of HIV-Infected Individuals Attending a Teaching Hospital in Bayelsa State, Nigeria. Nat Sci 2026,24(9):21-28]. ISSN 1545-0740 (print); ISSN 2375-7167 (online). http://www.sciencepub.net/nature 03. doi:10.7537/marsnsj240926.03

Keywords: Immunological markers; Virological markers; HIV-1; CD4; Plasma viral load; Nigeria

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DETECTION OF HBc IgM ANTIBODIES AMONG FEBRILE PATIENTS ATTENDING A MODEL HEALTH CENTRE, RUMUEME, PORT HARCOURT, NIGERIA

Okonko, B. J., Chindah, J. O., Awanye, A. M. & ^*Okonko, I. O.

Virus & Genomics Research Unit, Department of Microbiology, University of Port Harcourt, Port Harcourt, Nigeria.

*Corresponding author’s E-mail address: iheanyi.okonko@uniport.edu.ng; Tel: +2347069697309

ABSTRACT: The primary laboratory technique for identifying hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection in feverish patients is hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) testing. But depending only on HBsAg could miss acute or undetected HBV infections. The prevalence of hepatitis B core IgM antibody (anti-HBc IgM) in the South-South region of Nigeria is presently unknown. The purpose of this study was to determine the serological prevalence of anti-HBc IgM in patients with fever in Port Harcourt, Nigeria. Here, 92 febrile patients were tested for anti-HBc IgM using test kits in accordance with the manufacturer's instructions as part of a cross-sectional study. While 64.1% of participants tested negative, the overall prevalence of anti-HBc IgM was 35.9%. Higher prevalence rates were found in older age groups (44.7%), women (53.3%), single people (42.9%), people with postsecondary education (42.2%), and civil servants (47.4%). Nevertheless, anti-HBc IgM positivity was not statistically significantly predicted by any of the sociodemographic factors we evaluated. Crucially, the sole serological indicator of HBV infection in 33 (35.9%) febrile patients was anti-HBc IgM. This points to a potential recent or acute infection that HBsAg screening might overlook. The risk of HBV transmission to the general population from feverish individuals with isolated anti-HBc IgM positivity is highlighted by this finding. As a result, patients with fever in Port Harcourt frequently have anti-HBc IgM antibodies. For Nigerian patients with fever, we strongly advise routine screening for anti-HBc IgM. To the best of our knowledge, this study is the first to assess the prevalence of anti-HBc IgM in Nigeria's South-South region.

[Okonko, B. J., Chindah, J. O., Awanye, A. M. & Okonko, I. O. DETECTION OF HBc IgM ANTIBODIES AMONG FEBRILE PATIENTS ATTENDING A MODEL HEALTH CENTRE, RUMUEME, PORT HARCOURT, NIGERIA. Nat Sci 2026,24(9):29-37]. ISSN 1545-0740 (print); ISSN 2375-7167 (online). http://www.sciencepub.net/nature 04. doi:10.7537/marsnsj240926.04

Keywords: Antibodies; anti-HBc IgM; Prevalence; Febrile Patients; Nigeria

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Research on the dynamics of the South Fergana landscapesscientific and theoretical issues

Mirzahmedov Ismoiljon Karimjon ugli, Samiev Uchkun Abdullajonovich

Department of Geography and Environmental Protection, Namangan State University, Namangan, 160107, Uzbekistan

Department of Geography, Andijan State Pedagogical Institute, Andijan, 170100, Uzbekistan

E-mail: ismoil_landsat@mail.ru

Abstract. This paper examines the scientific and theoretical issues underpinning the dynamics of landscapes in the South Fergana region. Building on interdisciplinary literature in landscape ecology, geomorphology, and land-use science, the study synthesizes drivers and processes that shape landscape change-climatic variability, irrigation and drainage management, soil salinization, erosion, urbanization, and agricultural intensification. It reviews conceptual frameworks for understanding landscape dynamics (landscape metrics, hierarchical patch dynamics, socio-ecological systems, and resilience theory) and evaluates methodological approaches including historical cartography, field surveys, remote sensing, GIS-based change detection, and landscape modelling. The paper highlights how the interaction of natural processes and human activities produces spatially heterogeneous outcomes: loss of productive land through salinization and erosion, fragmentation of natural habitats, and altered hydrological regimes. Key theoretical challenges are identified: integrating fine-scale process understanding with regional-scale patterns, coupling biophysical and socio-economic drivers in predictive models, and developing indicators that are both scientifically robust and policy-relevant. Finally, the study outlines priorities for future research and practice-improved long-term monitoring, participatory approaches to land management, nature-based solutions for reclamation and resilience, and policy instruments that align agricultural productivity with ecological sustainability. The paper aims to provide a clear theoretical foundation to inform applied research, landscape planning, and sustainable development strategies in South Fergana and comparable irrigated valley systems.

[Mirzahmedov I.K. at. el. Research on the dynamics of the South Fergana landscapesscientific and theoretical issues. Nat Sci 2026,24(9):38-43]. ISSN 1545-0740 (print); ISSN 2375-7167 (online). http://www.sciencepub.net/nature 05. doi:10.7537/marsnsj240926.05

Key words: South Fergana; landscape dynamics; landscape ecology; land degradation; soil salinization; irrigation and water management; socio-ecological systems; resilience; land reclamation

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The Impact Of Climate Change On Groundwater In The Northern Fergana River Basins

Soliev Ikboljon Rahmonberdievich, Ismoilov Jaloliddin Kamoliddinovich

Department of Geography and Environmental Protection, Namangan State University, Namangan, 160107, Uzbekistan

E-mail: soliyev_1984@mail.ru

Abstract. This article analyzes the effects of climate change on the groundwater regime within the river basins of Northern Fergana, focusing on their relationship with hydrological factors. The study primarily investigates the dependence of groundwater levels in the Kosonsoy and G‘ovasoy basins on variations in river discharge. It also evaluates the impact of atmospheric precipitation on these basins by analyzing average decadal river flow values. Seasonal variations in both river flow and groundwater levels are assessed to understand the overall dynamics.

[Soliev I. at. el. The Impact Of Climate Change On Groundwater In The Northern Fergana River Basins. Nat Sci 2026,24(9):44-48]. ISSN 1545-0740 (print); ISSN 2375-7167 (online). http://www.sciencepub.net/nature 06. doi:10.7537/marsnsj240926.06

Key words: river basin; climate change; groundwater; groundwater level; river discharge; observation wells; water resource assessment; atmospheric precipitation

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